Teaching & Learning — Expected Questions

Meaning: Behaviourism holds that learning is a change in observable behaviour through consequences. In operant conditioning, behaviour followed by reinforcement is strengthened and by punishment is weakened.

• Positive & negative reinforcement; the Skinner box; schedules of reinforcement.
• Programmed learning, shaping and behaviour modification.

Implications: use reward & immediate feedback, small steps, teaching machines and behaviour modification.

Meaning: Piaget explained cognitive growth through schema, assimilation, accommodation and equilibration, in four stages:

• Sensorimotor (0–2) — senses & actions; object permanence.
• Pre-operational (2–7) — symbols & language; egocentric.
• Concrete operational (7–11) — logical thinking about concrete things.
• Formal operational (11+) — abstract & hypothetical reasoning.

Implication: match teaching to the child’s stage of readiness.

Meaning: Teaching is the arrangement of situations and interaction that brings about learning (Gage, B.O. Smith).

• Planned & purposeful; learner-centred; interactive & democratic.
• Well-organised; varied methods & aids; diagnostic & remedial.
• Promotes reflective thinking; gives feedback; professional & ethical.

Implication: teaching is a tripolar process (teacher–pupil–content) aimed at effective learning.

Meaning: In constructivism learners actively construct their own knowledge from experience; the teacher is a facilitator (Piaget — cognitive; Vygotsky — social).

• Inquiry-based, problem-based and project methods.
• The 5E model, collaborative learning, concept mapping.
• Scaffolding, use of prior knowledge, authentic tasks.

Implication: promotes active, meaningful, learner-centred learning.

Meaning: A professional teacher combines mastery of subject and pedagogy with the right attitudes and ethics.

• Communication & questioning skill; empathy, patience, fairness.
• Commitment, classroom management and adaptability.
• Continuous professional development & reflective practice; ICT competence; professional ethics & accountability.

As a profession: teaching has specialised knowledge, long training, a code of ethics, a service motive and autonomy.

Meaning: In learner-centred teaching the learner is the focus and the teacher is a facilitator.

• Active construction of knowledge; focus on understanding, not rote.
• Choice, autonomy and collaboration.
• Caters to individual differences and learning styles.
• Continuous assessment for learning; real-life, contextual learning.

Implication: deeper understanding, motivation and higher-order thinking.

Meaning: Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour due to experience (not maturation or fatigue).

• Elements: motive/drive → goal → readiness → maturation → learning situation → response → reinforcement.
• It is continuous, purposive, universal, active and growth-producing.

Implications: provide motivation, readiness, practice, feedback and reinforcement.

Meaning: A diverse classroom has learners differing in ability, socio-economic status, language, culture, gender, learning style and special needs.

• Know the learners; use differentiated instruction.
• Inclusive & culturally responsive teaching; multiple methods & materials.
• Cooperative learning & flexible grouping; a positive, equitable climate.
• Remedial support; collaborate with parents & specialists; UDL.

Implication: equitable teaching that reaches every learner.

Meaning: Micro-teaching (Allen & Ryan, Stanford 1963) is a scaled-down teaching encounter — one skill, 5–10 minutes, a small group.

• Cycle: Plan → Teach → Feedback → Re-plan → Re-teach → Re-feedback.
• Core skills: set induction, explaining, questioning, stimulus variation, reinforcement, blackboard writing, closure.

Implication: safe, focused training of specific teaching skills.

Meaning: In classical conditioning a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (dog & bell).

• UCS → UCR; after pairing, CS → CR.
• Concepts: acquisition, extinction, generalisation, discrimination.

Implications: build good habits & attitudes, associate school with pleasant experiences, and remove fears & phobias.

Meaning: A positive teacher–student relationship builds rapport, trust, communication and emotional security.

• Improves motivation, discipline, participation and achievement.
• The teacher acts as mentor and guide.
• Creates a conducive, supportive learning climate.

Importance: the quality of this relationship strongly affects learning outcomes and the child’s development.

Meaning: A model of teaching (Joyce & Weil) is a plan or pattern used to design instruction.

• Elements: Focus, Syntax, Social system, Principles of reaction, Support system, Instructional & Nurturant effects.
• Four families: Information-processing, Social, Personal, Behavioural.
• Examples: Concept Attainment, Advance Organiser, Inquiry Training.

Implication: models give teaching a systematic, goal-directed structure.

Meaning: Learning happens both inside and outside school.

• In school: formal, planned, curriculum-based, teacher-guided.
• Out of school: experiential and incidental — from family, community, nature, media and work.
• Bridge the two through projects, field trips and community engagement.

Implication: connect formal knowledge with real life for meaningful learning.

Meaning: Bloom’s Taxonomy (1956) classifies educational objectives. The cognitive domain has six levels:

• Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, Evaluation.
• Revised (Anderson, 2001): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, Create.
• Also the Affective and Psychomotor domains.

Implication: frame objectives and questions across all levels, not only recall.

Meaning: Vygotsky’s social constructivism holds that knowledge is built through social interaction.

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) = the gap between what a learner can do alone and with help from a More Knowledgeable Other.
• Scaffolding = temporary guided support, gradually withdrawn.
• Language and culture are central to learning.

Implication: teach through guided, collaborative activity within the ZPD.

Meaning: Thorndike explained learning as trial and error / connectionism (the S–R bond); the cat in a puzzle box.

• Law of Readiness — the learner must be prepared.
• Law of Exercise — practice (use & disuse) strengthens bonds.
• Law of Effect — satisfying results are retained, annoying ones dropped.

Implication: ensure readiness, provide practice and reward success.

Meaning: Ausubel distinguished two kinds of learning.

• Rote learning — memorising facts without understanding; quickly forgotten and not transferable.
• Meaningful learning — relating new knowledge to existing cognitive structure (via advance organisers); retained longer and transferable.

Implication: teach for meaning and understanding, not mechanical memorisation.

Meaning: The humanistic approach sees learning as developing the whole person and self-actualisation (the affective domain).

• Maslow — the hierarchy of needs leading to self-actualisation.
• Rogers — experiential, student-centred learning; freedom to learn; the teacher as facilitator; unconditional positive regard.

Implication: create an emotionally supportive, learner-centred climate.

Meaning: Maxims of teaching are practical rules that make teaching effective by starting from the learner’s experience.

• Known → unknown; simple → complex; concrete → abstract.
• Particular → general; whole → part; empirical → rational.
• Near → far; analysis → synthesis; psychological → logical.

Implication: proceed step by step from what the child already knows.

Meaning: Teaching proceeds through three phases:

• Pre-active — planning (objectives, content, strategy).
• Inter-active — execution and classroom interaction.
• Post-active — evaluation and feedback.

Implication: teaching is a systematic, cyclical process, not just delivery.

Meaning: Two cognitive views of meaningful learning.

• Bruner — discovery learning: learners discover principles themselves; modes enactive, iconic, symbolic; the spiral curriculum.
• Ausubel — advance organiser: introductory material that links new content to the learner’s prior knowledge (meaningful reception learning).

Implication: combine guided discovery with well-structured presentation.

Meaning: Both make the learner active and independent.

• Active learning — learning by doing & participation: brainstorming, discussion, projects, role-play, think-pair-share.
• Self-learning — independent, self-paced learning: programmed instruction, computer-assisted instruction, modules, MOOCs.

Implication: greater engagement, retention, autonomy and lifelong learning.

Meaning: Teaching operates at three ascending levels.

• Memory level (Herbart) — recall of facts.
• Understanding level (Morrison) — insight into generalisations & relationships.
• Reflective level (Hunt) — problem-solving, critical & creative thinking.

Implication: raise teaching from the memory level towards the reflective level.

Meaning: Teaching a diverse class means adapting instruction to varied learners.

• Differentiated instruction — vary content, process and product.
• Inclusive & culturally responsive pedagogy; multiple intelligences.
• Cooperative learning, flexible grouping and remedial teaching; UDL.

Implication: every learner is given a fair chance to succeed.

Meaning: Köhler’s Gestalt theory explains insight learning — solving a problem by suddenly perceiving relationships (the “aha” moment).

• The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
• Köhler’s experiments with apes (Sultan) reaching for bananas.

Implication: present problems as meaningful wholes and encourage understanding of relationships rather than trial and error.

Meaning: A reflective teacher critically examines their own practice to improve it (Schön — reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action).

• Uses feedback, self-evaluation and action research.
• The teacher as researcher investigates real classroom problems.

Implication: reflection drives continuous professional growth and better teaching.

Meaning: Motivation energises and directs learning behaviour.

• Intrinsic — interest, curiosity and satisfaction from the task itself.
• Extrinsic — rewards, grades, praise and recognition.
• Techniques: clear goals, feedback, relevance, success experiences, praise.

Implication: foster intrinsic motivation for deeper, lasting learning.

Meaning: The community — its people, places, institutions and nature — is a rich resource for learning; experiential learning is learning through direct experience and reflection (Dewey; Kolb’s cycle).

• Field trips, projects, surveys and service learning.
• Local experts and resources brought into teaching.

Implication: link the school with life and the community for meaningful learning.